Charis E. Kubrin

Specializations:
crime and crime trends; immigration and crime; criminal justice reform; rap music and media, culture and crime; race/ethnicity and violence

Charis E. Kubrin is Professor of Criminology, Law & Society and (by courtesy) Sociology. She is also a member of the Council on Criminal Justice, the Racial Democracy, Crime and Justice- Network, the Diversity Scholars Network, the Scholars Strategy Network, The UC Consortium on Social Science and Law, and UCI’s Center for Population, Inequality, and Policy. She is an expert for the Crime and Justice Research Alliance. She is a 2024 Newkirk Center for Science & Society Fellow.

Prof. Kubrin’s research examines the immigration-crime nexus and considers the impact of immigration-related policy on immigrants, immigrant families and immigrant communities. Another line of research assesses the impact of criminal justice reform on crime rates. A third line of research examines the use of rap lyrics as evidence in criminal trials against young men of color.

Prof. Kubrin has received national awards from the American Society of Criminology including the Ruth Shonle Cavan Young Scholar Award (for outstanding scholarly contributions to the discipline of criminology), the Herbert Bloch Award (for outstanding service contributions to the ASC and to the professional interests of criminology), and the Coramae Richey Mann Award from the Division on People of Color and Crime (for outstanding contributions of scholarship on race/ethnicity, crime, and justice) as well as from the Western Society of Criminology including the W.E.B. DuBois Award (for significant contributions to racial and ethnic issues in the field of criminology) and the Paul Tappan Award (for outstanding contributions to the field of criminology). In 2019, she was named a Fellow of the American Society of Criminology.

Issues of race and justice are at the forefront of Prof. Kubrin’s TEDx talk, The Threatening Nature of…Rap Music?, which critiques the use of rap lyrics as evidence in criminal trials against young men of color. Along with Barbara Seymour Giordano, Prof. Kubrin received a Cicero Speechwriting Award for this talk in the category of “Controversial or Highly Politicized Topic.”

Web Links of Research Sites

Prof. Kubrin hosts a website dedicated to providing information and resources related to the use of rap lyrics as evidence in criminal trials.

Prof. Kubrin is Co-director of the Irvine Laboratory for the Study of Space and Crime.

Prof. Kubrin co-organized an NSF-funded workshop, Realigning California Corrections: Legacies of the Past, the Great Experiment, and Trajectories for the Future. Papers from the workshop are published in a special issue of The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, co-edited with Carroll Seron. They published an op-ed in the Washington Post, Releasing low-level offenders did not unleash a crime wave in California, summarizing key findings.

BOOKS

• Kubrin, Charis E. and Graham C. Ousey. 2023. Immigration and Crime: Taking Stock. Springer.

• Kubrin, Charis E. and Thomas D. Stucky, Eds. 2013. Introduction to Criminal Justice: A Sociological Perspective. Stanford University Press.

• Kubrin, Charis E., Marjorie S. Zatz, and Ramiro Martinez, Jr., Eds. 2012. Punishing Immigrants: Policy, Politics, and Injustice. NYU Press.

• Kubrin, Charis E., Thomas D. Stucky, and Marvin D. Krohn. 2008. Researching Theories of Crime and Deviance. Oxford University Press.

• Crutchfield, Robert D., Charis E. Kubrin, Joseph G. Weis, and George S. Bridges, Eds. 2007. Crime and Society: Crime, 3rd Edition. Sage Publications.

• Squires, Gregory D. and Charis E. Kubrin. 2006. Privileged Places: Race, Residence, and the Structure of Opportunity. Lynne Rienner Publishers.

ARTICLES

• Kubrin, Charis E, Xiaoshuang Iris Luo, and John R. Hipp. 2024. “Immigration and Crime: Is the Relationship Non-Linear?” British Journal of Criminology. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azae045.

• Kubrin, Charis E, Kyle Winnen and Rebecca Rogers. 2024. “Rap Rhyme, Prison Time: How Prosecutors Use Rap Evidence in Gang Cases.” Chapman Law Review 27:369-404.

• Kubrin, Charis E. and Bradley Bartos. 2024. “The COVID-19 Pandemic, Prison Downsizing, and Crime Trends.” Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 40:113–137.

• Our op-ed “Decarceration and Crime Do Not Go Hand in Hand” in Scientific American here.

• Sola, Justin and Charis E. Kubrin. 2023. “Making the Call: How Does Perceived Race Affect Desire to Call the Police?” Journal of Experimental Criminology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-023-09571-z.

• Ballard, Meghan Maree and Charis E. Kubrin. 2023. “Immigrant Victimization: Centering Language in Theory, Data and Method.” Societies 13:101:1-17.

• Kubrin, Charis E and Rebecca Tublitz. 2022. “How to Think about Criminal Justice Reform: Conceptual and Practical Considerations.” American Journal of Criminal Justice 47:1050–1070.

• Kubrin, Charis E., Bradley Bartos, and Richard McCleary. 2022. “The Debt Crisis, Austerity Measures, and Suicide in Greece.” Social Science Quarterly 103:120-140.

• Kim, Young-An, John Hipp, and Charis E. Kubrin. 2022. “Immigrant Organizations and Neighborhood Crime.” Crime & Delinquency 68:1948-1976.

• Kubrin, Charis E. 2021. Control and Compassion: The 1994 Crime Bill and Immigration. Council on Criminal Justice.

• Kubrin, Charis E., Nicholas Branic, and John R. Hipp. 2021. “(Re)conceptualizing Neighborhood Ecology in Social Disorganization Theory: From a Variable-Centered Approach to a Neighborhood-Centered Approach.” Crime & Delinquency 68:2008-2032.

• Kubrin, Charis E. and Bradley Bartos. 2020. “Sanctuary Status and Crime in California: What’s the Connection?” Justice Evaluation Journal 3:115-133.

• SB54 and crime press release here.
• SB54 and crime study fact sheet here.

• Bartos, Bradley, Charis E. Kubrin, Carol Newark and Richard McCleary. 2019. “Medical Marijuana Laws and Suicide.” Archives of Suicide Research 24:204-217.

• Kim, Young-An, John R. Hipp, and Charis E. Kubrin. 2019. “Where They Live and Go: Immigrant Ethnic Activity Space and Neighborhood Crime in Southern California.” Journal of Criminal Justice 64:1-12.

• Kubrin, Charis E., Young-An Kim, and John R. Hipp. 2019. “Institutional Completeness and Crime Rates in Immigrant Neighborhoods.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 56:175-212.

• Pendergast, Philip, Tim Wadsworth and Charis E. Kubrin. 2019. “Suicide Rates in Happy Places: Is There Really a Paradox?” Journal of Happiness Studies 20:81–99.

• Dunbar, Adam and Charis E. Kubrin. 2018. “Imagining Violent Criminals: An Experimental Investigation of Music Stereotypes and Character Judgments.” Journal of Experimental Criminology. 14:507-528.

• Bartos, Bradley and Charis E. Kubrin. 2018. “Can We Downsize our Prisons and Jails without Compromising Public Safety? Findings from California’s Prop 47.” Criminology & Public Policy 17:1-21.

• My testimony in Congressional Hearing on Criminal Justice Reform in California here.
• Our op-ed “The Myth that Crime Rises as Prisons Shrink” in Governing Magazine here.
• Prop 47 and crime study Fact Sheet here.
• Response to Association of Deputy District Attorneys here.

• Adelman, Robert, Charis E. Kubrin, Graham C. Ousey, and Lesley W. Reid. 2018. “New Directions in Research on Immigration, Crime, Law and Justice.” Migration Letters 15:139-146.

• Ousey, Graham C. and Charis E. Kubrin. 2018. “Immigration and Crime: Assessing a Contentious Issue.” Annual Review of Criminology 1:63-84.

• Op-Ed: Immigration and Crime: What Does the Research Say? published in The Conversation, February 1, 2017 (reprinted in Scientific American, PBS, Newsweek, Business Insider)
• Op-Ed: California sanctuary cities bill is humane and effective published in The Hill, December 15, 2017

• Kubrin, Charis E., John R. Hipp, and Young-An Kim. 2018. “Different than the Sum of its Parts: Examining the Unique Impacts of Immigrant Groups on Neighborhood Crime Rates.” Journal of Quantitative Criminology 34:1-36.

• Kubrin, Charis E. 2017. “Delinquency and Modernity in Cyberspace?: Comments on America’s Safest City.” Crime, Law and Social Change 67:505-512.

• Hipp, John R. and Charis E. Kubrin. 2017. “From Bad to Worse: The Relationship between Changing Inequality in Nearby Areas and Local Crime.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 3:129-151.

• Dunbar, Adam, Charis E. Kubrin, and Nicholas Scurich. 2016. “The Threatening Nature of ‘Rap’ Music.” Psychology, Public Policy, and Law 22:280-292.

• Kubrin, Charis E. and Carroll Seron. 2016. “The Prospects and Perils of Ending Mass Incarceration in the United States.” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 664:16-24.

• Kubrin, Charis E. and John Hipp. 2016. “Do Fringe Banks Create Fringe Neighborhoods? Examining the Spatial Relationship between Fringe Banking and Neighborhood Crime Rates.” Justice Quarterly 33:755-784.

• Kubrin, Charis E. and Scott A. Desmond. 2015. “The Power of Place Revisited: Why Immigrant Communities have Lower Levels of Adolescent Violence.” Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice 13:345-366.

• Kubrin, Charis E. 2014. “Secure or Insecure Communities?: Seven Reasons to Abandon the Secure Communities Program.” Criminology & Public Policy 13:323-338.

• Kubrin, Charis E. and Erik Nielson. 2014. “Rap on Trial.” Race and Justice 4:185-211.

• Amicus brief on rap music for the U.S. Supreme Court (Bell v Itawamba County School Board), December 2015.
• Amicus brief on rap music for the U.S. Supreme Court (Elonis v U.S.), August 2014.
• Op-Ed: Rap Lyrics on Trial, published in the New York Times, January 13, 2014.
• Op-Ed: A new California trend– prosecuting rap, published in the Los Angeles Times, April 7, 2014.
• Op-Ed: Rap Lyrics or True Threats? It’s Time for the High Court to Decide, published in Forbes, May 24, 2014.
• Op-Ed: Will top court challenge prosecution of rap?, published in CNN.com. June 23, 2014.
• Op-Ed: A Potential Censorship or Criminalization of Rap Music, published in the New York Times, December 4, 2014.
• Read more in-depth coverage in Legal Debate on Using Boastful Rap Lyrics as a Smoking Gun in the New York Times, March 26, 2014.
• See panel discussion, Rap on Trial, co-sponsored by UCI’s Center for Psychology and the Law and the Newkirk Center. I was interviewed by Orange Coast Magazine for their story, The Rap Bias and by OC Register for their story, UC Irvine hip hop professor seeks poetic justice.
• For discussions related to rap on trial, see interviews from NPR‘s On the Media, Rap Lyrics as Evidence. Read more about rap on trial in Mother Jones‘ story, Your Rap Lyrics Can Be Held Against You in a Court of Law and Vice‘s story, Rap Lyrics are Being Used to Incriminate Young People.

• Ousey, Graham and Charis E. Kubrin. 2014. “Immigration and the Changing Nature of Homicide in U.S. Cities, 1980-2010.” Journal of Quantitative Criminology 30:453-483.

• Wadsworth, Tim, Charis E. Kubrin, and Jerald R. Herting. 2014. “Investigating the Rise (and Fall) of Young Black Male Suicide in the U.S., 1982-2001.” Journal of African American Studies 18:72-91.

• Kubrin, Charis E. and Hiromi Ishizawa. 2012. “Why Some Immigrant Neighborhoods are Safer than Others: Divergent Findings from Los Angeles and Chicago.” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 641:148-173.

• Kubrin, Charis E., Gregory D. Squires, Steven M. Graves and Graham Ousey. 2011. “Does Fringe Banking Exacerbate Neighborhood Crime Rates? Investigating the Social Ecology of Payday Lending.” Criminology and Public Policy 10:437-466.

• Kubrin, Charis E., Steven F. Messner, Glenn Deane, Kelly McGeever, and Thomas D. Stucky. 2010. “Proactive Policing and Robbery Rates across U.S. Cities.” Criminology 48:57-98.

• Kubrin, Charis E. and Tim Wadsworth. 2009. “Explaining Suicide among Blacks and Whites: How Socio-Economic Factors and Gun Availability Affect Race-Specific Suicide Rates.” Social Science Quarterly 90:1203-1227.

• Weitzer, Ronald and Charis E. Kubrin. 2009. “Misogyny in Rap Music: A Content Analysis of Prevalence and Meanings.” Men and Masculinities 12:3 -29.

• Discussion of the study findings can be found on the Sage Publications Men and Masculinities podcast.

• Desmond, Scott A. and Charis E. Kubrin. 2009. “The Power of Place: Immigrant Communities and Adolescent Violence.” Sociological Quarterly 50:581- 607.

• Ousey, Graham C. and Charis E. Kubrin. 2009. “Exploring the Connection between Immigration and Crime Rates in U.S. Cities, 1980-2000.” Social Problems 56:447-473.

• Deane, Glenn, Steven F. Messner, Thomas D. Stucky, Kelly McGeever, and Charis E. Kubrin. 2008. “Not ‘Islands, Entire of Themselves’: Exploring the Spatial Context of City-Level Robbery Rates.” Journal of Quantitative Criminology 24:363-380.

• Kubrin, Charis E. 2008. “Making Order of Disorder: A Call for Conceptual Clarity.” Criminology & Public Policy 7:203- 214.

• Guest, Avery M., Charis E. Kubrin, and Jane K. Cover. 2008. “Heterogeneity and Harmony: Neighboring Relationships among Whites in Ethnically-Diverse Neighborhoods in Seattle.” Urban Studies 43:501-526.

• Wadsworth, Tim and Charis E. Kubrin. 2007. “Hispanic Suicide in U.S. Metropolitan Areas: Examining the Effects of Immigration, Assimilation, Affluence, and Disadvantage.” American Journal of Sociology 112:1848-1885.

• Pollak, Jessica and Charis E. Kubrin. 2007. “Crime in the News: How Crimes, Offenders and Victims are Portrayed in the Media.” Journal of Criminal Justice and Popular Culture 14:59-83.

• Kubrin, Charis E., Gregory D. Squires, and Eric A. Stewart. 2007. “Neighborhoods, Race and Recidivism: The Community Reoffending Nexus and Its Implications for African Americans.” Sage Race Relations Abstracts 32:7-37.

• Guest, Avery M., Jane K. Cover, Charis E. Kubrin, and Ross L. Matsueda. 2006. “Neighborhood Context and Neighboring Ties.” City and Community 5:363-385.

• Kubrin, Charis E., Tim Wadsworth, and Stephanie DiPietro. 2006. “Deindustrialization, Disadvantage and Suicide among Young Black Males.” Social Forces 84:1559-1579.

• Kubrin, Charis E. and Eric A. Stewart. 2006. “Predicting Who Reoffends: The Neglected Role of Neighborhood Context in Recidivism Studies.” Criminology 44:171-204.

• Memo

• Kubrin, Charis E. 2005. “‘I See Death around the Corner’: Nihilism in Rap Music.” Sociological Perspectives 48:433-459.

• Kubrin, Charis E. 2005. “Gangstas, Thugs, and Hustlas: Identity and the Code of the Street in Rap Music.” Social Problems 52:360 -378.

• Squires, Gregory D. and Charis E. Kubrin. 2005. “Privileged Places: Race, Uneven Development, and the Geography of Opportunity in Urban America.” Urban Studies 42:47-68.

• Weitzer, Ronald and Charis E. Kubrin. 2004. “Breaking News: How Local TV News and Real-World Conditions Affect Fear of Crime.” Justice Quarterly 21:497-520.

• Wadsworth, Tim and Charis E. Kubrin. 2004 “Structural Factors and Black Interracial Homicide: A New Examination of the Causal Process.” Criminology 42:647-672.

• Kubrin, Charis E. and Ronald Weitzer. 2003. “New Directions in Social Disorganization Theory.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 40:374- 402.

• Kubrin, Charis E. and Jerald R. Herting. 2003. “Neighborhood Correlates of Homicide Trends: An Analysis Using Growth-Curve Modeling.” Sociological Quarterly 44:329-350.

• Kubrin, Charis E. and Ronald Weitzer. 2003. “Retaliatory Homicide: Concentrated Disadvantage and Neighborhood Culture.” Social Problems 50:157- 180.

• Kubrin, Charis E. 2003. “Structural Covariates of Homicide Rates: Does Type of Homicide Matter?” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 40:139-170.

• Kubrin, Charis E. and Tim Wadsworth. 2003. “Identifying the Structural Correlates of African-American Killings: What Can We Learn from Data Disaggregation?” Homicide Studies 7:3-35.

• Kubrin, Charis E. 2000. “Racial Heterogeneity and Crime: Measuring Static and Dynamic Effects.” Research in Community Sociology 10:189-219.

• Steen, Sara, Chris Bader and Charis E. Kubrin. 1999. “Rethinking the Graduate Seminar.” Teaching Sociology 27:167-173.

BOOK CHAPTERS

• Winnen, Kyle, Charis E. Kubrin, and Jack Lerner. Forthcoming. “Prosecutor Narratives and Race Construction in Rap on Trial Cases.” In Kelly Welch (Ed.), Handbook on Race, Crime and Justice. UK: Edward Elgar Publishing.

• Kubrin, Charis E. and Elliott Alvarado. Forthcoming. “Immigration and Crime around the Globe: Key Findings across a Diverse Range of Contexts.” In Dietrich Oberwittler and Rebecca Wickes (Eds.), Handbook on Cities and Crime. UK: Edward Elgar Publishing.

• Kubrin, Charis E. and Rebecca Tublitz. 2023. “Social Disorganization Theory and Community-Based Interventions.” Pp. 13-25 In Edelyn Verona and Bryanna Fox (Eds.) Handbook of Evidence-Based Criminal Justice Practices. London: Routledge.

• Kubrin, Charis E. and Graham Ousey. 2021. “Understanding Victimization: The Role of Cultural Theories.” Pp. 77-103 in Jillian Turanovic and Travis Pratt (Eds.), Revitalizing Victimization Theory: Revisions, Applications, and New Directions. London: Routledge.

• Kubrin, Charis E. 2021. “Understanding Lethal Violence: Homicide and Suicide.” Pp. 55-69 in Lorine Hughes and Lisa Broidy (Eds.), Social Bridges and Contexts in Criminology and Sociology: Reflections on the Intellectual Legacy of James F. Short, Jr. London: Routledge.

• Kubrin, Charis E. 2020.”Criminal Justice Reform in California: A Lesson for the Nation?” Pp. 253-258 in Pam Lattimore, Beth Huebner, and Faye Taxman (Eds.), Handbook on Moving Corrections and Sentencing Forward: Building on the Record. New York: Taylor & Francis.

• Kubrin, Charis E. and Michelle Mioduszewski. 2019. “Social Disorganization Theory: Past, Present and Future.” Pp. 197-211 in Marv Krohn, Gina Penly Hall, Alan J. Lizotte, and Nicole Hendrix (Eds.), Handbook on Crime and Deviance, 2nd Edition. Springer.

• Trager, Glenn and Charis E. Kubrin. 2018. “Aligning Public Policy, Criminological Theory, and Empirical Findings on the Immigration-Crime Relationship.” Pp. 146-168 in Scott Decker and Kevin Wright (Eds.), Criminology and Public Policy: Putting Theory to Work. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.

• Kubrin, Charis E. and Michelle Mioduszewski. 2018. “Theoretical Perspectives on the Immigration-Crime Relationship.” Pp. 66-78 in Holly Ventura Miller and Anthony Peguero (Eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Immigration and Crime. London: Routledge.

• Branic, Nicholas and Charis E. Kubrin. 2018. “Gated Communities and Crime in the United States.” In Gerben Bruinsma and Shane Johnson (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Environmental Criminology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

• Kubrin, Charis E. and Nicholas Branic. 2017. “The Chicago School.” Pp. 96-99 in Avi Brisman, Eamonn Carrabine, and Nigel South (Eds.), The Routledge Companion to Criminological Theory and Concepts. London: Routledge.

• Kubrin, Charis E. and James Wo. 2016. “Social Disorganization Theory’s Greatest Challenge: Linking Structural Characteristics to Crime in Socially Disorganized Neighborhoods.” Pp. 121-136 in Alex R. Piquero (Ed.), Handbook of Criminological Theory. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.

• Kubrin, Charis E. 2015. “’Come Along and Ride on a Fantastic Voyage’: My Journey through Rap Music Lyrics.” Pp. 77-87 in Michael Maltz and Stephen Rice (Eds.), Envisioning Criminology: Researchers on Research as a Process of Discovery. Springer.

• Kubrin, Charis E. 2015. “Cultural Disorganization and Crime.” Pp. 193-213 in Francis T. Cullen, Pamela Wilcox, Robert J. Sampson, and Brendan Dooley (Eds.), Challenging Criminological Theory: The Legacy of Ruth Kornhauser. Transaction Publishers.

• Trager, Glenn and Charis E. Kubrin. 2014. “Complicating the Immigration-Crime Nexus: Theorizing the Role of Gender in the Relationship between Immigration and Crime.” Pp. 527-548 in Rosemary Gartner and Bill McCarthy (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Gender, Sex, and Crime. New York: Oxford University Press.

• Kubrin, Charis E. and Glenn Trager. 2014. “Immigration and Crime in U.S. Communities: Charting Some Promising New Directions in Research.” Pp. 529-550 in Sandra M. Bucerius and Michael Tonry (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook on Ethnicity, Crime, and Immigration. New York: Oxford University Press.

• Kubrin, Charis E. 2013. “Crime and the Racial Composition of Communities.” Pp. 673-681 in David Weisburd and Gerben Jan Nicolaas Bruinsma (Eds.) Encyclopedia of Criminology and Criminal Justice. Springer.

• Kubrin, Charis E. 2013. “Immigration and Crime.” Pp. 440-455 in Francis T. Cullen and Pamela Wilcox (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Criminological Theory. New York: Oxford University Press.

• Kubrin, Charis E. 2011. “Communities and Delinquency.” Pp. 272-286 in Barry Feld and Donna Bishop (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Juvenile Crime and Juvenile Justice. New York: Oxford University Press.

• Kubrin, Charis E. and Ronald Weitzer. 2010. “Rap Music’s Violent and Misogynistic Effects: Fact or Fiction?” Pp. 121-144 in Mathieu Deflem (Ed.), Popular Culture, Crime, and Social Control. Sociology of Crime, Law, and Deviance, Vol. 14. Bingley, UK: Emerald/JAI Press.

• Kubrin, Charis E. 2010. “Social Disorganization Theory: Then, Now, and In the Future.” Pp. 225-236 in Marvin D. Krohn, Alan J. Lizotte, and Gina Penly Hall (Eds.), Handbook on Crime and Deviance. New York: Springer Science+Business Media.

• Kubrin, Charis E. and Graham Ousey. 2009. “Immigration and Homicide in Urban America: What’s the Connection?” Pp. 17-32 in William F. McDonald (Ed.), Immigration, Crime and Justice. Sociology of Crime, Law, and Deviance, Vol. 13. Bingley, UK: Emerald/JAI Press.

• Matsueda, Ross L., Kevin Drakulich, and Charis E. Kubrin. 2006. “Race, and Neighborhood Codes of Violence.” Pp. 334-356 in Ruth D. Peterson, Lauren J. Krivo, and John Hagan (Eds.), The Many Colors of Crime: Inequalities of Race, Ethnicity and Crime in America. New York: New York University Press.

• Steen, Sara, Christine E.W. Bond, George S. Bridges, and Charis E. Kubrin. 2005. “Explaining Assessments of Future Risk: Race and Attributions of Juvenile Offenders in Pre-Sentencing Reports.” Pp. 245-269 in Darnell F. Hawkins and Kimberly Kempf-Leonard (Eds.), Our Children, Their Children: Confronting Racial and Ethnic Differences in American Juvenile Justice. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

• Austin, James, John Irwin and Charis E. Kubrin. 2003. “It’s About Time: America’s Imprisonment Binge.” Pp. 433-469 in Thomas G. Blomberg and Stanley Cohen (Eds.), Punishment and Social Control, 2nd Edition. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.